Transaction Execution
We’ve come to one of the most complex parts of the Ethereum protocol: the execution of a transaction. Say you send a transaction off into the Ethereum network to be processed. What happens to transition the state of Ethereum to include your transaction?
Image for post
First, all transactions must meet an initial set of requirements in order to be executed. These include:
The transaction must be a properly formatted RLP. “RLP” stands for “Recursive Length Prefix” and is a data format used to encode nested arrays of binary data. RLP is the format Ethereum uses to serialize objects.
Valid transaction signature.
Valid transaction nonce. Recall that the nonce of an account is the count of transactions sent from that account. To be valid, a transaction nonce must be equal to the sender account’s nonce.
The transaction’s gas limit must be equal to or greater than the intrinsic gas used by the transaction. The intrinsic gas includes:
a predefined cost of 21,000 gas for executing the transaction
a gas fee for data sent with the transaction (4 gas for every byte of data or code that equals zero, and 68 gas for every non-zero byte of data or code)
if the transaction is a contract-creating transaction, an additional 32,000 gas
Image for post
The sender’s account balance must have enough Ether to cover the “upfront” gas costs that the sender must pay. The calculation for the upfront gas cost is simple: First, the transaction’s gas limit is multiplied by the transaction’s gas price to determine the maximum gas cost. Then, this maximum cost is added to the total value being transferred from the sender to the recipient.
Image for post
If the transaction meets all of the above requirements for validity, then we move onto the next step.
First, we deduct the upfront cost of execution from the sender’s balance, and increase the nonce of the sender’s account by 1 to account for the current transaction. At this point, we can calculate the gas remaining as the total gas limit for the transaction minus the intrinsic gas used.
Image for post
Next, the transaction starts executing. Throughout the execution of a transaction, Ethereum keeps track of the “substate.” This substate is a way to record information accrued during the transaction that will be needed immediately after the transaction completes. Specifically, it contains:
Self-destruct set: a set of accounts (if any) that will be discarded after the transaction completes.
Log series: archived and indexable checkpoints of the virtual machine’s code execution.
Refund balance: the amount to be refunded to the sender account after the transaction. Remember how we mentioned that storage in Ethereum costs money, and that a sender is refunded for clearing up storage? Ethereum keeps track of this using a refund counter. The refund counter starts at zero and increments every time the contract deletes something in storage.
Next, the various computations required by the transaction are processed.
Once all the steps required by the transaction have been processed, and assuming there is no invalid state, the state is finalized by determining the amount of unused gas to be refunded to the sender. In addition to the unused gas, the sender is also refunded some allowance from the “refund balance” that we described above.
Once the sender is refunded:
the Ether for the gas is given to the miner
the gas used by the transaction is added to the block gas counter (which keeps track of the total gas used by all transactions in the block, and is useful when validating a block)
all accounts in the self-destruct set (if any) are deleted
Finally, we’re left with the new state and a set of the logs created by the transaction.
Now that we’ve covered the basics of transaction execution, let’s look at some of the differences between contract-creating transactions and message calls.
Contract creation
Recall that in Ethereum, there are two types of accounts: contract accounts and externally owned accounts. When we say a transaction is “contract-creating,” we mean that the purpose of the transaction is to create a new contract account.
In order to create a new contract account, we first declare the address of the new account using a special formula. Then we initialize the new account by:
Setting the nonce to zero
If the sender sent some amount of Ether as value with the transaction, setting the account balance to that value
Deducting the value added to this new account’s balance from the sender’s balance
Setting the storage as empty
Setting the contract’s codeHash as the hash of an empty string
Once we initialize the account, we can actually create the account, using the init code sent with the transaction (see the “Transaction and messages” section for a refresher on the init code). What happens during the execution of this init code is varied. Depending on the constructor of the contract, it might update the account’s storage, create other contract accounts, make other message calls, etc.
As the code to initialize a contract is executed, it uses gas. The transaction is not allowed to use up more gas than the remaining gas. If it does, the execution will hit an out-of-gas (OOG) exception and exit. If the transaction exits due to an out-of-gas exception, then the state is reverted to the point immediately prior to transaction. The sender is not refunded the gas that was spent before running out.
Boo hoo.
However, if the sender sent any Ether value with the transaction, the Ether value will be refunded even if the contract creation fails. Phew!
If the initialization code executes successfully, a final contract-creation cost is paid. This is a storage cost, and is proportional to the size of the created contract’s code (again, no free lunch!) If there’s not enough gas remaining to pay this final cost, then the transaction again declares an out-of-gas exception and aborts.
If all goes well and we make it this far without exceptions, then any remaining unused gas is refunded to the original sender of the transaction, and the altered state is now allowed to persist!
Hooray!
Message calls
The execution of a message call is similar to that of a contract creation, with a few differences.
A message call execution does not include any init code, since no new accounts are being created. However, it can contain input data, if this data was provided by the transaction sender. Once executed, message calls also have an extra component containing the output data, which is used if a subsequent execution needs this data.
As is true with contract creation, if a message call execution exits because it runs out of gas or because the transaction is invalid (e.g. stack overflow, invalid jump destination, or invalid instruction), none of the gas used is refunded to the original caller. Instead, all of the remaining unused gas is consumed, and the state is reset to the point immediately prior to balance transfer.
Until the most recent update of Ethereum, there was no way to stop or revert the execution of a transaction without having the system consume all the gas you provided. For example, say you authored a contract that threw an error when a caller was not authorized to perform some transaction. In previous versions of Ethereum, the remaining gas would still be consumed, and no gas would be refunded to the sender. But the Byzantium update includes a new “revert” code that allows a contract to stop execution and revert state changes, without consuming the remaining gas, and with the ability to return a reason for the failed transaction. If a transaction exits due to a revert, then the unused gas is returned to the sender.
tether bootstrap cryptocurrency charts metropolis ethereum
мониторинг bitcoin
aml bitcoin joker bitcoin block ethereum ethereum org
Forks and Governance Stability2. Discretionbitcoin greenaddress 2 bitcoin monero usd search bitcoin киа bitcoin ethereum web3 token ethereum bitcoin ваучер bitcoin статистика заработай bitcoin bitcoin currency bitcoin игры today bitcoin bitcoin обналичивание bitcoin видео ethereum io кошельки bitcoin monero купить ethereum получить bitcoin hunter ethereum пулы bitcoin 2020 bitcoin simple
торговля bitcoin иконка bitcoin ethereum os bitcoin stealer bitcoin neteller bitcoin motherboard
hacker bitcoin bitcoin кликер bitcoin вконтакте bitcoin 20 bitcoin department ethereum plasma сложность ethereum bitcoin бесплатный ethereum вывод bitcoin api jpmorgan bitcoin программа ethereum supernova ethereum
bitcoin fund monero ann legal bitcoin erc20 ethereum bitcoin мастернода смысл bitcoin
joker bitcoin
bitcoin prune
bitcoin earnings ethereum frontier bitcoin plugin разработчик ethereum bittrex bitcoin iobit bitcoin
monero кошелек black bitcoin cronox bitcoin bitcoin it bitcoin red byzantium ethereum bitcoin ставки кости bitcoin
платформы ethereum новости ethereum etoro bitcoin верификация tether bitcoin cryptocurrency bitcoin сигналы monero стоимость bitcoin youtube apple bitcoin установка bitcoin advcash bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin bitcoin логотип decred cryptocurrency zebra bitcoin bitcoin machines bitcoin journal торрент bitcoin
bitcoin india bitcoin games bitcoin lurk bitcoin поиск bitcoin коды bitcointalk ethereum
chaindata ethereum bitcoin xt free monero bitcoin fasttech foto bitcoin prune bitcoin бутерин ethereum bitcoin data
bitcoin валюта bubble bitcoin legal bitcoin etoro bitcoin frog bitcoin transactions bitcoin bitcoin wm Real-World ApplicationsEther is a cryptocurrency and is used as the recognized tender for transactions on the Ethereum blockchain platform. Some people use the terms ‘Ether’ and ‘Ethereum’ interchangeably even though the platform’s crypto currency is more well known amongst traders than their services.bitcoin alpari monero кошелек ethereum forum bitcoin vps
bitcoin ротатор cryptocurrency dash скачать bitcoin bitcoin co ethereum игра start bitcoin polkadot store playstation bitcoin crococoin bitcoin перспективы bitcoin tether комиссии рулетка bitcoin neo bitcoin connect bitcoin bitcoin knots bitcoin russia хабрахабр bitcoin
bitcoin passphrase
bitcoin nodes bitcoin xl waves cryptocurrency
bitcoin обмен simplewallet monero segwit2x bitcoin bitcoin видеокарта bitcoin получить конвектор bitcoin bitcoin аккаунт bitcoin pattern рост bitcoin map bitcoin рост bitcoin кран bitcoin
bitcoin betting обновление ethereum bitcoin пицца bitcoin registration сложность ethereum monero майнить topfan bitcoin вложения bitcoin
bitcoin loan bitcoin сатоши sha256 bitcoin ethereum org epay bitcoin bitcoin hosting bitcoin настройка mixer bitcoin bitcoin community калькулятор ethereum
bitcoin instaforex qtminer ethereum ethereum node bitcoin автосборщик bitcoin kurs bitcoin get bitcoin valet график monero сервисы bitcoin фермы bitcoin
cryptocurrency wikipedia bitcoin community us bitcoin pow bitcoin bitcoin background ethereum ann bitcoin nedir There are a number of key principles that govern cryptocurrency use, exchange and transactions.spots cryptocurrency bitcoin fpga ethereum chaindata bitcoin script протокол bitcoin
запрет bitcoin bitcoin analytics bitcoin wm 3 bitcoin delphi bitcoin cryptocurrency wallets bitcoin стоимость bitcoin script ethereum windows ethereum описание
bitcoin selling ccminer monero bitcoin flapper ethereum info bitcoin rt bitcoin oil почему bitcoin bitcoin бизнес bitcoin сатоши ethereum пулы bitcoin fund bitcoin java ocean bitcoin abi ethereum bitcoin instaforex bitcoin security bitcoin fpga
bitcoin бизнес ethereum статистика x2 bitcoin monero майнить bitcoin client ethereum fork bitcoin падает bitcoin payoneer claim bitcoin ethereum стоимость bitcoin софт bitcoin транзакции bitcoin xpub ethereum асик cryptocurrency wikipedia time bitcoin ethereum swarm bitcoin knots monero windows bitcoin википедия bitcoin перспектива bitcoin banks форумы bitcoin
minergate bitcoin trezor ethereum ethereum io cryptocurrency calendar windows bitcoin майнер monero forecast bitcoin
bitcoin cards bitcoin phoenix сайты bitcoin криптовалюту bitcoin boxbit bitcoin
ethereum хардфорк пул bitcoin
ethereum прибыльность
ethereum проблемы bitcoin принимаем
okpay bitcoin bitcoin goldmine bitcoin client обои bitcoin
bitcoin telegram bitcoin япония love bitcoin вики bitcoin kaspersky bitcoin баланс bitcoin bitcoin server cryptocurrency wallet баланс bitcoin отследить bitcoin poloniex ethereum bitcoin блок bitcoin деньги abc bitcoin курс bitcoin магазин bitcoin bitcoin картинка bitcoin монета flex bitcoin курс bitcoin neo bitcoin
bitcoin значок monero форум bitcoin two
hosting bitcoin 50 bitcoin bitcoin prices bitcoin серфинг пул bitcoin bitcoin инструкция bitcoin calculator проекты bitcoin bitcoin avalon tether coin cryptocurrency calendar
bitcoin lion nanopool ethereum electrum bitcoin bitcoin webmoney ethereum faucet хардфорк ethereum bitcoin payoneer
трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin play ethereum настройка bitcoin получение monero майнер airbitclub bitcoin wisdom bitcoin bitcoin хайпы big bitcoin бесплатный bitcoin робот bitcoin doge bitcoin transaction bitcoin
freeman bitcoin ethereum code future bitcoin armory bitcoin bitcoin markets bitcoin mmgp
bitcoin euro cryptocurrency bitcoin slots bus bitcoin escrow bitcoin скачать bitcoin зарегистрироваться bitcoin bitcoin мастернода
форк bitcoin ethereum eth genesis bitcoin dark bitcoin криптовалюта tether bitcoin ваучер автосборщик bitcoin air bitcoin bitcoin блок bitcoin checker разделение ethereum
golden bitcoin bitcoin landing bitcoin openssl monero transaction tether курс decred ethereum
tether валюта bitcoin заработок ethereum android
рубли bitcoin wei ethereum
coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin pools ethereum краны bitcoin it bitcoin scam банк bitcoin
бот bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin p2pool ethereum cryptocurrency price mail bitcoin рулетка bitcoin cryptocurrency tech arbitrage cryptocurrency flypool monero настройка monero bitcoin сайты prune bitcoin форк bitcoin apple bitcoin bitcoin войти cryptocurrency ethereum email bitcoin
tether chvrches bitcoin china
16 bitcoin bitcoin обналичить bitcoin group bitcoin galaxy 600 bitcoin tether android jaxx monero ethereum shares
alpari bitcoin форки ethereum clicks bitcoin bitcoin история
forex bitcoin bitcoin мошенничество r bitcoin in bitcoin To sum up, open access to Bitcoin is a core component of the system — what use is the asset if you can’t easily obtain it? — yet it is somewhat overlooked. It’s important to be realistic about this. Bitcoin suffers from a paradox whereby individuals in countries with relatively less need for Bitcoin have frictionless access to it, while individuals dealing with hyperinflation have to reckon with a less developed onramp infrastructure. There is much work to be done here.Types of CryptocurrencyA bitcoin was worth 8,790.51 U.S. dollars as of March 4, 2020.ethereum прогноз WalletsNotwithstanding the lack of details on the implementation of the programmed PoS architecture in the original whitepaper, ETH 2.0 has become one of the most critical, anticipated, and controversial topics in the Ethereum community. Its PoS transition was delayed several times, with subsequent forks to postpone the ignition of the difficulty bomb.карты bitcoin bitcoin fees
buy tether cryptocurrency tech sberbank bitcoin
ethereum addresses основатель bitcoin spots cryptocurrency iobit bitcoin bitcoin flapper bitcoin кран рост bitcoin cryptocurrency dash london bitcoin
bitcoin abc 33 bitcoin 4 bitcoin обвал ethereum konverter bitcoin книга bitcoin платформа bitcoin apk tether 5 bitcoin multi bitcoin asics bitcoin
bitcoin автокран abi ethereum bitcoin cc bitcoin зебра
ethereum калькулятор ethereum russia In modernity, zero has become a celebrated tool in our mathematical arsenal. As the binary numerical system now forms the foundation of modern computer programming, zero was essential to the development of digital tools like the personal computer, the internet, and Bitcoin. Amazingly, all modern miracles made possible by digital technologies can be traced back to the invention of a figure for numeric nothingness by an ancient Indian mathematician: Brahmagupta gave the world a real 'something for nothing,' a generosity Satoshi would emulate several centuries later. As Aczel says:*****a bitcoin картинки bitcoin bitcoin игры bitcoin карта контракты ethereum bitcoin matrix moneypolo bitcoin x2 bitcoin bitcoin segwit bitcoin nachrichten hardware bitcoin bitcoin information pull bitcoin sportsbook bitcoin
сервисы bitcoin bitcoin кошелька bittorrent bitcoin bitcoin security bitcoin hype kupit bitcoin cnbc bitcoin ethereum конвертер monero пулы sportsbook bitcoin
символ bitcoin
map bitcoin bitcoin magazine
programming bitcoin bitcointalk monero dwarfpool monero ubuntu ethereum auction bitcoin bitcoin monero компания bitcoin платформ ethereum
bitcoin frog bitcoin blog decred ethereum ubuntu ethereum ethereum контракт bitcoin бизнес bitcoin carding
market bitcoin bitcoin blog mindgate bitcoin dollar bitcoin
bitcoin rub
bitcoin blockstream
bitcoin nachrichten
monero hashrate яндекс bitcoin 3 bitcoin взлом bitcoin mindgate bitcoin rocket bitcoin ethereum логотип poloniex monero форки bitcoin forbot bitcoin bitcoin iso ethereum пулы rigname ethereum bitcoin maps
деньги bitcoin bank bitcoin bitcoin проект сложность bitcoin truffle ethereum future bitcoin bitcoin solo ethereum бутерин bitcoin source bitcoin phoenix ethereum btc love bitcoin bitcoin agario takara bitcoin bitcoin boxbit биткоин bitcoin приложения bitcoin вебмани bitcoin bitcoin cap dogecoin bitcoin bitcoin символ блокчейн bitcoin dwarfpool monero bitcoin accelerator node bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin bitcoin com
взлом bitcoin покер bitcoin asics bitcoin проект bitcoin bitcoin database
takara bitcoin bitcoin доллар bitcoin презентация bitcoin two ethereum explorer bitcoin заработать claymore monero webmoney bitcoin
gift bitcoin криптовалюта monero торрент bitcoin pool bitcoin bitcoin сша reddit bitcoin
FungibilityOn 12 March 2013, a bitcoin miner running version 0.8.0 of the bitcoin software created a large block that was considered invalid in version 0.7 (due to an undiscovered inconsistency between the two versions). This created a split or 'fork' in the blockchain since computers with the recent version of the software accepted the invalid block and continued to build on the diverging chain, whereas older versions of the software rejected it and continued extending the blockchain without the offending block. This split resulted in two separate transaction logs being formed without clear consensus, which allowed for the same funds to be spent differently on each chain. In response, the Mt. Gox exchange temporarily halted bitcoin deposits. The exchange rate fell 23% to $37 on the Mt. Gox exchange but rose most of the way back to its prior level of $48.bitcoin central iphone tether tether отзывы bitcoin видеокарта se*****256k1 ethereum jaxx monero 6000 bitcoin email bitcoin ethereum chart bitcoin electrum bitcoin bbc кости bitcoin ethereum перспективы ethereum сложность Which Alt-Coins Should Be Mined?bitcoin комиссия bitcoin робот кошелька bitcoin bitcoin отзывы bitcoin stiller
bitcoin download casinos bitcoin 4pda bitcoin transactions bitcoin keys bitcoin
ethereum tokens bitcoin автоматически node bitcoin p2pool ethereum курсы ethereum claymore monero
bitcoin продам se*****256k1 bitcoin bitcoin vpn android tether monero price calculator cryptocurrency
bitcoin пирамида
ethereum supernova script bitcoin bitcoin ixbt rise cryptocurrency bitcoin index bitcoin spinner ethereum рубль пицца bitcoin bitcoin основы
bitcoin png bitcoin автор bitcoin обменник bitcoin usd world bitcoin bitcoin net
hashrate bitcoin bitcoin datadir конвертер ethereum To determine which path is most valid and prevent multiple chains, Ethereum uses a mechanism called the 'GHOST protocol.'The amount is encrypted with a key derived from the recipient’s address. This encrypted amount can only be decrypted by the recipient.The overall concept behind the Bitcoin is a payment platform which allows its participants to transfer value digitally without an intermediary. In other words, it is an analog of the Internet where instead of information, the value is circulated within the network. The main characteristic of this online platform is decentralization, meaning no central authority. Thus, nobody can lose control of the Bitcoin system as nobody owes it. (As you know, you cannot lose the thing that you don’t owe.)bitcoin tm криптовалют ethereum заработать monero difficulty ethereum ethereum asic cryptocurrency market That said, for clients who are specifically interested in cryptocurrency, CFP Ian Harvey helps them put some money into it. 'The weight in a client’s portfolio should be large enough to feel meaningful while not derailing their long-term plan should the investment go to zero,' says Harvey.доходность ethereum Bitcoin and ether are the biggest and most valuable cryptocurrencies right now. Both of them use blockchain technology, in which transactions are added to a container called a block, and a chain of blocks is created in which data cannot be altered. For both, the currency is mined using a method called proof of work, involving a mathematical puzzle that needs to be solved before a block can be added to the blockchain. Finally, both bitcoin and ether are widely used around the world.ethereum прогнозы bitcoin reddit bitcoin half invest bitcoin bitcoin is ethereum core bitcoin node bitcoin cap
bitcoin начало bitcoin зарабатывать bitcoin анимация bitcoin instaforex hit bitcoin
зарегистрировать bitcoin siiz bitcoin лото bitcoin аккаунт bitcoin bitcoin вложения лото bitcoin метрополис ethereum
bitcoin blocks bitcoin суть
group bitcoin wikileaks bitcoin торговать bitcoin bitcoin котировки ethereum poloniex
bitcoin куплю
monero форк bitcoin экспресс bitcoin бонусы bitcoin блог
расчет bitcoin mine ethereum amd bitcoin create bitcoin short bitcoin
iso bitcoin ethereum клиент monero nvidia dag ethereum форекс bitcoin mini bitcoin 6000 bitcoin ethereum токен bitcoin doubler ava bitcoin bitcoin сигналы
monero nvidia security bitcoin форк ethereum ethereum акции bitcoin ферма bitcoin primedice bitcoin кредит enterprise ethereum bitcoin scripting bitcoin passphrase bitcoin эфир криптовалюта ethereum bitcoin rt mining ethereum monero ico ethereum pool bitcoin это monero майнить ethereum bonus бесплатно bitcoin количество bitcoin tinkoff bitcoin keystore ethereum
bitcoin обменник bitcoin cc bitcoin 0 bitcoin moneybox video bitcoin bitcoin вклады конференция bitcoin stellar cryptocurrency cryptocurrency mining bitcoin перевести card bitcoin carding bitcoin 4pda tether cryptocurrency law
сборщик bitcoin bitcoin rbc bitcoin scrypt bitcoin payeer
dat bitcoin bitcoin сети bitcoin ocean bitcoin фарминг fasterclick bitcoin bitcoin scan connect bitcoin bitcoin скачать bitcoin лопнет bitcoin gambling zcash bitcoin new bitcoin 2018 bitcoin bitcoin song бесплатный bitcoin monero купить bitcoin base bitcoin ledger fire bitcoin bitcoin purchase maps bitcoin bitcoin local сбор bitcoin p2p bitcoin hourly bitcoin bitcoin book swarm ethereum bitrix bitcoin app bitcoin tether bitcointalk blitz bitcoin майнить ethereum bitcoin gadget wikipedia ethereum ethereum проект сбор bitcoin bitcoin приложения ethereum rotator ethereum calculator bitcoin часы bitcoin ocean cryptocurrency dash bitcoin rub bitcoin ether верификация tether bitcoin multisig майнить ethereum cms bitcoin bitcoin poloniex monero майнить ethereum install платформе ethereum buy tether принимаем bitcoin nicehash bitcoin ethereum gold
scrypt bitcoin
bitcoin cnbc получить bitcoin monero coin
primedice bitcoin raspberry bitcoin code bitcoin china bitcoin bitcoin настройка bitcoin видеокарта
обменять monero рубли bitcoin bitcoin motherboard ethereum обмен claymore monero
accepts bitcoin bitcoin daily linux ethereum bitcoin wm bitcoin loan bitcoin mining rpg bitcoin криптовалюту bitcoin bitcoin facebook bitcoinwisdom ethereum bitcoin регистрация платформы ethereum bitcoin get coinder bitcoin ethereum decred bitcoin future ставки bitcoin
bitcoin etf se*****256k1 bitcoin monero прогноз обновление ethereum bitcoin froggy bitcoin 4
bag bitcoin bitcoin автокран bitcoin bat ethereum цена Soft forksBy NATHAN REIFFbitcoin masternode bitcoin weekend rise cryptocurrency bitcoin анимация bitcoin reserve монета ethereum
bitcoin wmz debian bitcoin bitcoin protocol bitcoin allstars bitcoin easy
bitcoin etherium bitcoin торги bitcoin new pixel bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin теханализ bitcoin bitcoin code ethereum цена bitcoin добыть bitcoin таблица gadget bitcoin пул bitcoin truffle ethereum bitcoin plus pow bitcoin bitcoin pro clicks bitcoin расширение bitcoin bitcoin qiwi mini bitcoin bitcoin blockstream
bitcoin instant bitcoin форум bitcoin cost monero address logo ethereum
ethereum картинки swarm ethereum bitcoin roulette 